by: Peter Daniel Catina, PH.D

How many times have you heard a coach at the contest screaming a long list of instructions to their lifter immediately prior to the execution of the squat? Guess what? It doesn’t work! In fact, it’s often too complicated, the athlete cannot readily process it, and it’s more of a distraction than anything else. Let’s face it, if your lifter doesn’t know what to do 30 seconds before his or her opener…. it’s too late! Thought precedes language. Unfortunately, some coaches seem to have very big mouths and very small brains. This is always a bad combination. More coaches should realize that they are not the center of attention, the lifter is. Instead of screaming a paragraph of useless information, coaches should limit their instructional cues to a few positively charged syllables of proper technique and encouragement. 

Introduction

The purpose of this article is to present a multifaceted understanding of the processes underlying psychological modeling and their relationships to learning the free weight squat exercise. In order to benefit from the favorable training adaptations afforded by the barbell squat, performing the exercise with proper technique is absolutely crucial. Proper visual demonstration or modeling is vital for learning a complex motor skill such as the squat. Visual demonstration conveys a vast array of informational cues that are far more relevant to facilitate an observer's motor skill acquisition than information conveyed through verbal instruction. Successful performance of the squat exercise depends on the ability to hold visual symbols in memory for a short interval of time and maintain internal descriptions of the relevant biomechanical factors necessary to execute the motor task efficiently. In the following study, subjects who performed the squat after exposure to a video-taped demonstration of proper technique exhibited significantly higher scores in both the accuracy of their cognitive representation of the modeled action, as well as in performance technique than subjects who performed the squat without exposure to video-taped demonstration. These data suggest that visual demonstration of the squat is a positive factor in enhancing the performance of novice lifters. There are, of course, many factors that influence motor skill acquisition. 

Upon visiting almost any fitness center, at least two things will be evident. Either people do not perform the squat at all, or many of those who do, perform it incorrectly. This is due to false information and improper instruction. Another problem is that people learn to squat while looking at their refection in a mirror. Although mirrors do provide a modicum of necessary feedback as to how one is progressing in terms of appearance, they are an inappropriate orientation for observing the execution of a motor task, especially one as complex as the squat. You wouldn't teach someone how to approach a bowling lane while facing a mirror, or demonstrate a tennis serve while facing the learner. Learning to squat in front of a mirror is not consistent with the notion of acquiring a cognitive representation through observational learning. 

These concepts are easily recognized by standing in front of a mirror and raising your right hand. The image in the mirror seems to raise its left hand. Write a word on a piece of paper and hold the paper so that the word can be seen in the mirror. The word seems to be written backwards. Mirrors change what you see. When light strikes the reflection of a lifter in a mirror, only a small part of that light travels in the correct direction to reach that lifter’s eyes and the paths to each eye cross over to the other side before they reach their destinations. To get to the lifter’s eyes, light from every point on the reflection takes a different path. Light from the highest point ends up lowest after being reflected by the mirror. Likewise, light from the lowest point ends up highest after being reflected. 

Squatting in front of a mirror is one of the most counterproductive practices I have ever witnessed, especially for a beginning powerlifter. What a shock it must be for a novice lifter to arrive at the contest and find that there are no mirrors! Few things are more important than simulating contest environment during training sessions. I’ve even gone so far as to bring newspaper and tape to the gym and cover up the mirror where I squat. Whatever works for you, comic strips, a poster of Shania Twain, or a picture of the meanest, ugliest, strictest head-referee on the planet (which is the most likely thing you’ll see at the actual contest). Think of it as a surefire way to keep those pesky bodybuilders away from the rack when you’re squatting. Try it sometime, just cover up the mirrors, and watch all the body builders disappear along with their reflections. The intent of this article is not necessarily to condemn mirrors (they’re great for shaving), but rather to show that proper visual demonstration is an effective method for motor skill acquisition.

Since the squat is a full-body exercise, it elicits one of the highest hormonal responses provided by all resistance exercises. Hormonal actions that influence the adaptations to the squat exercise include, but are not limited to, improved force production, stimulation of cartilage growth, and enhanced size (Fleck & Kraemer, 1987). 

Performing the squat exercise with proper technique is crucial in order to benefit from these favorable adaptations. Teaching proper form to a student requires visual demonstration by the instructor. The literature in the area of motor skill performance as it relates to or is affected by modeling primarily considers visual perception of the modeled information as a mediating variable on behavior, but what ensues between perception and behavior does not appear to be fully addressed. Apparently, a myriad of intermediary components is essential in transforming the patterns of movement demonstrated by the model into appropriate actions to be accomplished by the learner. 

Psychological Modeling

Modeling is an effective means of conveying relevant information to facilitate an observer's motor skill acquisition (Gould & Roberts, 1981). The literature in the area of modeling primarily considers visual perception as a mediating variable on behavior. Visual demonstrations of motor tasks are retained by the learner in the form of internal messages, which are recorded and saved in the pre-frontal cortex of the brain for future retrieval (Goldman-Rakic, 1987). It is evident that the observer somehow retains the modeled action and can later replicate what was seen in the absence of verbal instruction (Williams, 1994).

The significance of the modeling process lies in its effect on the behavior of the observer. The observer does not merely watch the action passively. But perceives the environmental information rather actively. According to Gibson (1968), the observer must differentiate the information within the optic array into its most useful dimensions. In other words, particular events and attributes are singled out for observing and describing what exactly ensues between perception and action. So, it is crucial to demonstrate proper technique to the observer in the most effective manner, especially when one considers the many people in various weight rooms that are using bad technique, thereby setting a bad example to those observers. When a coach gives too many verbal cues, it causes the lifter to think about too many things. This may result in confusion and attenuate performance. Too many instructions make it difficult for the student to totally isolate one strategy from another. In doing so, some of the information is lost. It may be that the student is using various combinations of strategies and cannot be focused into using the most effective one. Therefore, it is important that verbal instruction be as clear and parsimonious as possible. The coach should first demonstrate the squat with the learner standing behind him or her. This type of visual modeling facilitates motor skill reproduction. However, there is a multiplicity of variables and co-actors that are linked to observational learning which will be expounded upon within the remaining sections of this article.

Bandura (1986) suggests that behavior is mediated by exposure to the model and that repeated exposure to the model will improve the quality of the cognitive representation which will, in turn, facilitate performance. The concept of modeling is presumed to be controlled by four sub-components: "Attention", a conjecture that people cannot learn much by observation unless they attend to, and perceive accurately the significant features of the modeled behavior. "Retention", where it is submitted that people cannot be influenced by observation if they do not remember it. "Motor reproduction process", which is the conversion of symbolic representations into appropriate actions. "Motivation" which proposes that people are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in rewarding consequences. According to Martens, Burwitz, and Zuckerman (1976), the successfulness of the modeling process is limited by the difficulty of the motor task. This relationship between modeling and performance is predicated on two circumstances: an accurate perception of what is to be accomplished by way of strategy or technique, and the ability of the learner to reproduce the demonstrated action. The instructor should give immediate visual feedback by demonstrating the movement with an emphasis on correcting existing mistakes or replaying videotape of the student's performance, thereby providing visual assessment of the motor task in a timely manner. This will give the student a reference point from which he or she can improve performance. 

According to Adams (1986), this knowledge of results enables the observer to correct errors in movement technique. The greater the accuracy of the cognitive representation of the modeled action, the greater the skill acquisition will be in the subsequent reproductions of it. This is consistent with the schema theory proposed by Schmidt (1975), which states that sensory consequences and actual outcomes, for a given set of initial conditions, could be related by the subject. 

Cognitive Representations

Cognitive representations may be construed as "mental blueprints" comprising an essential link between perception and action. The brain not only categorizes these non-language representations; it also builds successive layers of categories such as shape, movement, and sequence. In this way, the learner organizes visual information, events, and their relationships. 

The notion of a cognitive representation, although it has been called many different things by many different researchers, has been explored since the origin of psychology as a science. For example, James (1894) characterizes the notion of a cognitive representation when addressing the idea of movement images. More recently, researchers who have described, theorized, and attempted to measure changes in cognitive representations include (Cooper & Podgorny, 1976; Corballis, 1979; Broadbent, 1984; Matthews, 1988; Masson, 1990; Carroll & Bandura, 1990). A cognitive representation has two basic functions. One is to regulate movement production, and the other is to serve as a standard of corrections for the detection of error between the cognitive representation and response-produced feedback (Adams, 1986). While it may be possible to detect error in the movement of a reflection in a mirror, it is impossible to construct an accurate cognitive representation and correct the error through the immediate feedback from a mirror. The learner should be able to use his or her cognitive representation as a reference of correctness in order to form a hypothesis about how to perform the movement better. This is accomplished most effectively by modeling via visual demonstration from the instructor and/or implementing video-taped performance for assessing proper technique in the barbell squat.

Proper Squat Technique

Proper technique for squatting includes, but is not limited to, placing the bar approximately 1-3 inches below the anterior deltoid, which affords more efficient biomechanics by lowering the center of gravity, as long as the bar is not placed exceedingly low on the shoulders. Generally, the feet should be slightly wider than shoulder width. This will increase the availability and usage of the larger and more powerful muscles and enable the lifter to shorten the distance traveled. The lifter should start the descent by leading with the hips rather than with the knees so that the shins are perpendicular to the floor. The heels should be flat on the floor for the entire duration of the lift. Raising the heels up predisposes the knees to injury and shifts the center of gravity forward forcing the lower back to compensate for the displaced load. The lifter should have fully inhaled while starting the descent. The breath should be expelled when the "sticking point" is reached in the ascent, which is typically around thirty degrees of extension. This technique will increase interstitial leverage and aid in keeping the torso erect by forcing the chest out in front of the bar. As one can see, there is a complex network of movement underlying efficient squat performance.

Arousal Level and Increased Resistance in the Squat

It is bit idealistic to assume that gross motor activities, such as the squat, require high levels of arousal for optimal performance and conversely that gross motor activities are adversely affected by low levels of arousal. The idea should be that optimal levels of arousal are suitable for optimal levels of performance. Perhaps an appropriate increase in resistance must be used to elicit an optimal arousal level. This topic is of particular importance to beginning powerlifters because of the driving force of the human ego to place too much weight on the bar before proper technique is developed. Of course, the object of the sport is to lift more weight; after all, powerlifting is the essence of true strength expression, but not at the expense of proper form. 

I am currently conducting a pilot study to further investigate the effect of increased resistance in subsequent trials of the squat. So far, the evidence suggests that gradually increasing the weight increases the accuracy of the cognitive representation and actually improves technique. One would think that making a novel and complex task even more difficult would increase inhibition, but carefully choosing the "correct" increment of resistance is responsible for heightened performance. This seems likely due to psychological factors of knowing that there is more weight on the bar, which may stimulate response behaviors such as increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and most importantly the enhancement of reflexes, force production, and possibly reaction time. This psychological phenomenon seems to manifest itself physiologically by mediating by an increase in catecholamine secretion. According to Davis, Hitchcock, and Rosen (1991), fear or increased arousal may result from activation of a single area of the brain (the central nucleus of the amygdala). The projections from the central nucleus of the amygdala to the ventral tegmental area may mediate stress-induced changes in dopamine synapses located in the frontal cortex resulting in increased vigilance and attention. These alterations in autonomic activity may have a synergistic effect, thereby increasing the subject's ability to perform a gross motor task such as the squat when an appropriate increase in resistance is added to the bar. 

Visualization and Imagery

Imagery is a pervasive form of experience and is clearly important for all individuals interested in the acquisition of free-weight lifting skills. The effectiveness of imagery techniques has been demonstrated regarding sport tasks of accuracy, concentration, and strength (Lee & White, 1990). The physiological and psychological benefits from practicing visualization improve athletic performance, and have a direct application to the increase of strength (Murphy, Woolfolk, & Budney, 1988). Imagery rehearsal of the desired sequence of sensory-motor behavior units involved in a good performance has been used both by itself and as a part of multiple models (e.g., visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, which combines imagery, relaxation, and actual performance (Suinn, 1980). An interesting point to consider is that individual differences in imagery ability can influence motor task performance. Subjects with greater imagery ability achieve higher scores in replicating movement patterns than do subjects of lesser imagery ability (Goss, 1986). Experimental research has indicated that "high imagers" exhibited significantly greater recall scores than "low imagers. Visual imagery facilitates the short-term retention of visually presented sequences of movement. 

Clearly, it has been demonstrated that mental practice enhances performance (Grouios, 1992). However, there still exists the misconception that once mental practice is learned, it can be used in an appropriate situation with a reliable frequency. Teaching students mental practice techniques is one thing, teaching them to be able to initiate those techniques in specific situations such as learning to perform the squat exercise requires a close examination of technique and appropriate feedback in order to correct mistakes. Also, since it is possible for a lifter to mentally rehearse the execution of proper technique and retain the image of the correct motor pattern. Likewise, it is possible for a lifter to mentally rehearse the execution of poor technique and retain the image of the incorrect motor pattern. This is important when one considers that nearly all non-powerlifters perform the squat incorrectly, thus setting a bad example for gullible observers. 

My research idea was to see if exposure to video-taped demonstration of the squat by an expert model would positively affect performance by increasing the accuracy of the learner's cognitive representation, as well as the level of performance technique in the squat. It was hypothesized that subjects who were exposed to a video-taped performance of the squat by an expert model would exhibit greater scores on the questionnaire analysis, the video analysis, and the three-dimensional figure analysis, than subjects who were not exposed to the video-taped demonstration. The following section is an abbreviated description of the experiment without most of the excruciatingly detailed statistical procedures.